In the aerospace and automotive heat treatment industries, Temperature Uniformity Surveying (TUS) is the technique of confirming the process is compliant with industry standards.  Furnaces and ovens are normally required to be compliant to AMS2750 or CQI-9 specifications before products can be heat treated.

Aluminum brazing involves joining components with a brazing alloy (cladding), where its melting point is appreciably lower than the parent material (base alloy). The cladding is typically placed adjacent to or in-between the components to be joined. The assembly is then heated to a temperature window of 580-615°C (1076-1139°F), where the cladding material melts and the parent material does not. The process can be performed either in a controlled atmosphere furnace known as a CAB, or in a vacuum furnace.

The initial thermal operation applied to aluminum prior to hot working is referred to as ‘preheating’. One of the principal objectives is improved workability. This process precedes hot rolling, extrusion or machining, resulting in variations in the shape of the product. Furnaces used for homogenizing can also vary depending on the product. Ingots, slabs, billets and logs are the most common products. Continuous, pusher and batch furnaces are the most widely-used by the industry, where temperatures are up to 650°C (1202°F).

Solution heat treatment is applied to many aluminum products to impart certain properties to the metal. Corrosion resistance and hardness are the major two properties that can be imparted through this process. The total duration of the process depends on the alloy composition, cross section and furnace capacity. Process temperatures range from 475-600°C (887-1112°F) for solution reheat, 40-85°C (104-185°F) for water or polymer quench, and 90-245°C (194-473°F) for age hardening.

Coating of glass in vacuum deposition processes is used to create thin film solar panels. Silicon Nitride in PECVD processes is used to coat silicon solar cells to form an anti-reflection layer.

In the production of asphalt, the viscosity of asphalt cement varies with temperature. The quality of asphalt is graded based on ranges of consistency at a standard temperature.

This application involves the forming of automotive and truck/bus windshields in the sag-bending process. The glass sheet is heated until it is within it's viscoelastic phase, at which point, the glass then slumps into a former to take on the required shape.

Coal and biomass piles oxidation process can lead to spontaneous combustion. This spontaneous self-ignition can result in difficult to control fires and presents serious safety and economical problem.

In a blast furnace, iron ores are converted into liquid iron inside a large refractory-lined steel vessel. Raw materials (iron ore, coke, limestone), plus sintered products, are fed into the top of the furnace and very hot air is blown into the bottom.

The raw materials can take several hours to convert into molten iron and slag, and are drawn off periodically by drilling into a clay plug in the refractory lining and transferring to the next stage, via transportable ladles (torpedo cars). Hot dirty gases from the top of the blast furnace are cleaned and cooled to be used for burning in the hot stoves to heat the incoming "cold blast". The gases are injected into the bottom of the furnace by a number of tuyeres (large cast copper, water-cooled injectors), installed around the circumference of the blast furnace.

The process involves extruding a tube of molten polymer (typically polyethylene) through a die and inflating it to several times its initial diameter to form a thin film tubular bubble. This bubble is cooled as it is drawn upwards and eventually freezes, before collapsing to be wound and either slit for processing as a flat film or kept in tubular form for making plastic bags. Solidification occurs at the frost line and the position of this frost line is controlled by several parameters, such as airflow, speed and difference to the surrounding temperature.

Annealing of glass containers is conducted immediately following the forming process and the containers enter the lehr when already hot. The annealing lehr will further heat the containers and then cool them at a carefully controlled rate. Post annealing processing can provide cosmetic decoration and in some cases, decorative coatings are applied that require further thermal curing.

To make candy bars the manufacturer has to have a mold. Typically this is a plastic mold with multiple cavities. The mold is chilled to 15°C (60°F) and then the chocolate is poured into the mold. 

Single layer linerboard or cardboard, consisting of outer plies and corrugated core, is glued together in a machine called a corrugator. The glue is cured as the board passes over a steam heated roll. The temperature is controlled by how much the board is wrapped around the roll and the tension on the board.

Cast films are typically used in packaging industry or as coating substrates in extrusion coating processes. In the cast film extrusion process, the melt is extruded through a wide die as a thin web and is cooled on a metal casting roll.

In cast film production, polymers are melted through a slot or flat die (extruded) to form a thin molten film. This film is attracted towards the surface of a chilled roller using the force of an air knife or vacuum box, where it immediately solidifies. The film then passes through a series of chill rollers before being edge-trimmed and typically wound on a roll. Some machines will extrude a number of films for a laminated final product.

Rotary kilns used in cement processing are made from steel, lined with ceramic refractory material to protect the steel from the heat of the burner (1500°C/2700°F).

Ceramics and bricks are fired in a kiln at temperatures up to 1200°C/2200°F. The entire process can take up to several days from entry to exit, as the product travels through cycles of drying, pre-heating, firing and cooling.

A key step in the manufacture of any electronic assembly is the mass soldering of the components to the substrate. The soldering can be conducted in one or more of several processes with convection reflow being the most widely used.

In the automotive market, the manufactuing of cars, trucks, bikes and other associated modes of transportation requires the application of many coating, polymer and adhesive cure applications. Each application requires thermal treatment to provide the finished product with the required protection, cosmetic appearance and safety demanded by industry regulations, such as CQI-12, CQI-9 and ISO9000.

Applications include:

Coating of car body shell in automotive assembly - E-coat, primer surfacing, base coat, top/clear coat.

Structural sealing and bonding of car body shell - structural adhesives, PVC/ mastic sealers, thermal treatment of composite materials.

Coating of parts and accessories supplied to automotive OEMs - engine blocks, oil filters, brake pads, air bags, Internal trim, control panels, rubber door seals, and internal cloth coverings.

Coating cure of either steel or aluminum coil strip is done on a high speed coil coating line, which will be used in the fabrication of many products in the construction, transportation, packaging or domestic appliance cookware markets.

In the bread and confectionary industry, a key step in food processing is the baking process, which gives the final product the important characteristics for an enjoyable eating experience - appearance, smell, taste, texture and of course, safety. A variety of products, including bread loaves/rolls, pizza, pies, quiche, biscuits, crackers, pastries, cakes and other confectionary products, require the baking process to be controlled to guarantee food safety, quality, consistency and value.

Many processed foods supplied to the food market are packaged in bottles, cans or sealed pouches. These products, as part of the processing step, need to be pasteurized/sterilized in the final packaging to guarantee food safety and extend shelf life, without any other form of preservation, such as chilling or freezing. One example is the pasteurization and sterilization of filled beer bottles in conveyorized, raining hot water and steam pasteurization lines. Batch retort sterilization at pressure is common in the processing of food products packaged in either pouches, glass jars or metal cans. Sliced meats that have already been cooked will often be flash pasteurized after the packaging process, to remove contaminant microorganisms on the meat surface in order to guarantee consumer safety.

Contact drying is a short, mid-temperature process used to dry the metal paste that is screen printed onto the silicon solar cell. It can be undertaken in a standalone drier or as part of a combined drying & firing furnace.

The contact drying and firing process is a short high temperature process that fires the front and rear face contacts onto crystalline photovoltaic cells.

Continuous casting is a process that solidifies molten metal into various forms, known as billets, blooms and slabs. The process may include immediate hot rolling to shape the final strand, which is then cut into lengths for either stockpiling or transferring directly to the next stage of the forming process.

No aspect of modern society can function without power, so keeping the power distribution grid up and running is essential in order to maintain our day-to-day lives. If critical machinery breaks down, you run the risk of disrupting the grid. The Critical Asset Monitoring System builds on the high-performance ThermoView TV40 Thermal Imager and includes advanced software features and housing accessories designed specifically for remote temperature monitoring in substations and electric utility applications.

The process of extrusion coating (on top of substrate) and extrusion laminating (between two substrates) similarly forces a molten thermoplastic resin through a horizontal die onto a moving web. Substrates include paper, aluminum, card and printed films.

Continuous process laminating and embossing machines typically heat and cure a number of substrates together before embossing a textured finish to one or both sides. Depending on the finish desired, calendar rolls may also be used for to modify smoothness, surface luster and thickness uniformity. Heat energy is added to the process by use of heated rollers and electric or gas infrared panel heaters.

After the electroplating of metal fasteners, which are used extensively in the automotive or construction industry, it is essential that the metal product is taken through a thermal heat treatment process to prevent hydrogen embrittlement. Hydrogen embrittlement is the process in which hydrogen molecules in voids within the metal, create a pressure build-up, which can lead to internal cracks and failures in the field. If the metal has not started to crack, the condition can be reversed by baking out the entrapped hydrogen, as long as this is done within one hour after acid-treating the parts. The fasteners must be heated to a target metal temperature of 200°C (392°F) and held at that temperature for 4 hours within the product basket to remove (diffuse) the harmful hydrogen.

The tempering of flat glass is achieved by heating and then quenching in either conveyorized or oscillating furnaces. The process is generally conducted in two separate chambers with the quenching being achieved using very high volume airflow. This can be a high volume, low mix, or low mix, high volume application.

Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten metal, typically tin. This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Once off the bath, the glass sheet passes through a lehr kiln, where it is cooled gradually, so that it anneals without strain and does not crack from the temperature change.

Forging is the transformation of metals or alloys under pressure between two tools. Applications include forging of steel in hot forging temperatures from 950-1250°C (1742-2282°F), warm forging 750-950°C (1382-1752°F) and cold forging up to 150°C (302°F).

In a foundry, molten metal is poured into a mold. Subsequent operations include removing either the mold material or the casting after the metal has solidified. Typical casting applications can include Sand Casting, Investment Casting, Die Casting and Billet (Ingot) Casting.

Galvanizing and annealing lines typically involve the thermal preparation and application of various zinc coatings on a thin strip of various metal alloys.

This medium temperature application is conducted in a conveyor process and involves the curing of resin coating on glass fiber used in insulation boards.

Wallboards are made from either natural gypsum (calcium sulfate) or so-called byproduct gypsum calcium sulfate extracted in coal power plants. The raw material is mixed with water and additives. The mixture termed "slurry" spreads onto a moving sheet of paper and during the length of the production line, it sets and is finally cut to the required length before the boards travel into the dryer. The drying process is monitored and controlled to prevent voids and cracks in the wallboard.

Heated seats are the perfect addition to any vehicle driven in cool weather or in places with harsh winters. Careful assembly of electronic components and controls are required in integration process to assure reliable and lasting performance of the heated seat.  

High temperature coating of flat glass and glass lenses is conducted in a vacuum and involves the application of special coatings, such as anti-reflection.

Vacuum Carburizing is the process of hardening certain metals or alloys to achieve a specific surface resistance. The furnace has the capability to introduce certain gasses like acetylene within the carburizing chamber. Further furnace processes include the gas quench (nitrogen or helium up to 20 Bar or 290PSI), which is used to cool down the products at a fast rate. The end-products are used principally in the automotive industry.

Heat treating is a process used to change the physical properties of a metal. Heat treatment processes include annealing, hardening, normalizing, quenching, tempering and strengthening.

Heat treatment in vacuum furnaces provides a cleaner environment by reducing atmosphere levels to a minimum, especially molecules of oxygen. The result is a non-reactive condition, where metals can be heat treated. Aluminum and other alloy brazing is preferred for high-end products, due to the cleanliness and absence of flux.

Hot forming is becoming increasingly important in the forming of structural panels for the production of automobiles.The process consists of rapid heating of flat panels to 950°C/1742°F prior to pressing them into complex shapes.

In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is preheated up to 1300°C (2400°F) and passed through rollers to reduce thickness. Hot rolling processes include pre-heating furnaces, scale breakers, slab scale, rough stand, finishing stand and cooling lines.

Lamination is the critical last step in the manufacture of crystalline and thin film solar photovoltaic panels. Performed in membrane or press laminators, this is a semi batch process that simultaneously presses and heats the panels.

Laser plastic welding is a process by which a laser is used to bond plastic materials. Widely used in the automotive industry, as well as medical and electronics sensor industries, laser polymer welding provides low thermal and mechanical loads to the component, is highly flexible, and doesn’t involve the use of particles or solvents.

Metal coating is an application performed routinely worldwide, as a critical part of many OEM product manufacturing processes. The thermal cure of either solvent-based or powder coatings is essential to add value to the metal fabrication, by either protecting the product, providing an improved surface finish quality, or adding functionality to the product (e.g. PTFE - lubrication). The thermal cure of the coating in either batch or conveyorized ovens is critical to the performance of the end-product, and needs to be monitored and controlled.

A critical part of the manufacture of 2 piece metal cans is the thermal cure of the internal lacquer coating. The lacquer, applied to the inside surface of the can, is cured by passing the cans through a low height mesh belt oven, often referred to as an Internal Bake Oven (IBO). Such coating is essential to provide a barrier between the metal of the can and the beverage, or food contained within it. Correct cure of the barrier coating is important to guarantee both long term integrity of the metal can and food safety.

This application involves the manufacturing of 3 piece metal cans used for food and other consumer packaging solutions. As part of the process, the can body needs to be coated to provide both physical protection and cosmetic quality. The can body requires an internal lacquer coating to create a barrier between the metal and can contents to ensure food safety and prevent damage to the packaging. The external can surface needs a decorative coating to provide product identity/branding and a decorative finish. Both coating processes require controlled thermal curing of large tin plate sheets, performed in a specifically designed Wicket oven. As part of the can assembly process, curing of lacquer applied to the welded side seam is performed in a separate side seam / side stripe oven.

In the manufacture of aluminum metal tube packaging using the monobloc manufacturing process, the aluminum tube, bottle or aerosol can is drawn deep from an aluminum disc, which is then coated internally with lacquer and externally with primer, print ink and varnish.  This is followed by a cure process, which involves sending the tube through an IBO oven to cure internal lacquer and then through a pin chain oven (or ovens) to cure external decorative coatings.

Oven manufacturers promote their products to the industrial coatings market with the help of accurate, efficient thermal curing of coatings. Oven designs can range from premium bespoke paint line installations to more simple batch box ovens, utilizing either convection or infrared heat transfer mechanisms.

Coating manufacturers supply a wide variety of industrial coatings (paints, powder coatings, lacquers, PTFE, etc.) to end-users, who apply coatings in the manufacturing of their own specific products.

Custom coaters also referred to as "job shops", supply a coating facility to other OEM operations. Though not actually manufacturing an end-product of their own, the custom coater provides a variety of coating solutions for their customers, covering a range of different products.. The custom coaters often employ multiple coating lines and coating chemistries with different types of ovens (batch and conveyorized). Typically, hundreds of different product batches are processed on a monthly basis.

In a paper mill, the paper leaves the fourdrinier machine and proceeds to wind over several steam-heated rollers to dry it before it is rolled up. If the drying is not complete, there will be streaks of water on the paper.

To produce paper, the pulp wood is placed in a digester to dissolve the cellulose and produce wood fibers. The by-product of this process, black liquor, is sprayed into a recovery boiler and burned, producing green liquor in a bed combustion unit, where the temperature has to be maintained at approximately 1037°C (1900°F) to keep it burning. If the liquor is too wet, it will cause a “black-out” condition. If there is a lack of combustible material, then a starving condition occurs.

Milk bottles, motor oil containers, orange juice containers, and many other bottles are extruded in the form of a tube. The tube is cut to length and placed in a mold where it is blown to the shape of the container. 

Continuous process laminating and embossing machines typically heat and cure a number of substrates together before embossing a textured finish to one or both sides. Depending on the finish desired, calendar rolls may also be used to modify smoothness, surface luster and thickness uniformity. Heat energy is added to the process through the use of heated rollers and electric or gas infrared panel heaters.

In plastic sheet extrusion production, polymers are melted through a slot or flat die (extruded) to form a thin, molten sheet. This sheet is is attracted towards the surface of a chilled roller where it immediately solidifies. The sheet then passes through a series of rollers which will determine thickness and texture before being edge trimmed and cut to the required size (heavy gauge sheet) or wound onto a roller (thin gauge sheet). Extruded plastic sheets are often used for thermoforming into a final shape (for example in the manufacture of refrigerator or freezer internal panels or plastic beverage cups).

In the food industry, further food processing is big business, adding value to the consumer by providing ready-to-eat meal options. Heavily governed by HACCP food safety regulations, the most critical part in poultry, meat and seafood processing is the cooking process, which ensures food safety and product quality for the consumer.

The cooking of these foods can be performed in many different ways, i.e. roasting, steaming, frying, and baking, where either batch or continuous oven technology can be used, but all methods require critical temperature monitoring to verify process control and certify food safety. Monitoring of other associated processes, such as chilling, freezing or product storage are also critical to food safety.

The application of high temperature coatings requires a cure temperature that exceeds 300°C/572°F. High temperature coatings, such as PTFE are used extensively in the manufacture of cooking utensils, cookware, irons and hair grooming products, where the coating needs to withstand high operational temperatures and often provide a non-stick product functionality. Other high temperature coating processes include high temperature Dacromet coatings for nuts, bolts, catches and other parts, often used in the automotive and construction industry.

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) is a high-tech coating application, used to manufacture high-end consumer products, jewelry and medical products. The PVD coatings are hard, thin film coatings, deposited in a vacuum chamber from a physical source, as opposed to a chemical one. The coating process is performed by sputtering, where atomized material from a solid target is transferred to the product by energetic bombardment of its surface layers by ions or neutral particles. Magnetron sputtering is an extremely flexible coating technique that can be used to coat virtually any material. 

Raw material, such as steel billets and blooms, are manufactured in a steel mill and converted into bars and rod wires in a rod wire mill. The typical process temperatures are 550°C-900°C (1022°F-1652°F). The final product - rod wire, is in a coil form.

Rotomolding and slush molding are unique plastic processing techniques used to manufacture large plastic products: rotomolding products, such as water and chemical tanks, automotive fuel tanks, children's play equipment, and canoes, in addition to slush molding products, such as automotive interiors and dashboards.

The processes involve forming the plastic product in a large heated mold. Polymer granules are added to the mold, which melt and form a skin on the internal surface of the mold as it is rotated inside the oven. After thermal processing, the mold is cooled and the finished formed product is removed. Different polymers can be used in Rotomolding, such as Polyethylenes (LDPE, HDPE), ABS, Nylon, and Polypropylene. Each polymer has its own unique thermal characteristics, so the process heating cycle needs to be optimized for the polymer used.

Natural rubber has some serious defects; it is weak, easily becomes sticky and is not very elastic. To improve the physical properties (strength and heat resistance) of the material, it is taken through a vulcanization process, in which the polymeric chains of rubber undergo a crosslinking reaction, initiated by the addition of sulphur to form a stable 3D network . This reaction occurs at room temperature, but very slowly. To increase the rate of the chemical reaction, heat is applied. Many products in a vast range of industrial sectors, including Automotive (e.g., door seals and windshield wipers) need to be thermally treated to undergo vulcanization to maximize product performance. Vulcanization can be perfomed using either batch or continuous oven technology.

Selective soldering is replacing hand soldering, where a small number of through-hole components are fitted to an electronic sub-assembly. In the process, either the assembly is moved to the mini solder wave to make the joint, or the wave is moved to the assembly.

A sinter plant can process various materials into a finished product that has the desired chemical composition and grain size to be used in the blast furnace. Materials include iron ore fines, limestone, dolomite and waste dust, scale and slag particles. The mixture of materials are baked on a moving conveyor, ignited by burners from above with fumes extracted from below, which ensures complete baking from top to bottom. At the end of the line, the "sinter cake" is discharged onto a "crash deck" for crushing and cooling.

In the textile manufacturing industry, both raw materials and finished garments are thermally processed to give specific product qualities necessary for their specific end-use. Raw fabric rolls require processes, such as dying, setting or the application of flame retardant coatings. These processes are performed by feeding the coated fabric continuously through an oven referred to as a Stenter or Tenter oven, in which the coating/material is thermally treated or cured. Similar processes are applied in the manufacture of carpet. Finished garments often need additional coating processes. A key process is ‘wrinkle-free’ coating of finished garments, which are then cured either in batch or conveyorized ovens.

Thermoforming involves the heating of one or more plastic sheets to a temperature suitable for forming or stretching into or onto a mold, and then cooled before removal and trimming. Finished parts range from disposable cups to large single piece automotive body panels. Processes can be semi-continuous (fed as thin-gauge sheet from a roll) or discontinuous (large heavy-gauge single sheets).

The production of steel tubing uses sheet stock that is formed into a tubular shape by passing through a series of roller stands and an induction welder. The welder heats the seam to a high enough temperature to ensure a strong weld, as the metal is being forced together. Induction welding is a common method of steel tube production, where temperature control is essential to maintain quality.

Waste incineration involves the combustion of organic substances contained within municipal solid and hazardous waste material.  

In the manufacture of consumer household products, such as furniture, kitchen cabinets, computer desks, doors and windows, coating is applied to wood or synthetic wood products, such s MDF. Different coating systems can be applied, from simple low temperature paint/varnish to powder coating systems, but each requires some degree of thermal treatment or thermal curing.